The Roman Soldier

Introduction

What did Roman soldiers campaigning or based in Scotland look like?

To appreciate many Roman sites in Scotland, it often helps to be able to visualise in your minds eye what the Roman soldiers - Roman Scotland was primarily a military affair- who lived, worked, patrolled and crowded into the forts and marching camps actually looked like.

The cultural background of the soldiers themselves will have reflected the recruiting policy of Rome, with peoples from a diverse cross section of the Empire such as troops from the Rhine to the Middle East rubbing shoulders with citizen soldiers from Italy as well as Rome itself.

Usually therefore it was the equipment and clothing of the Roman soldier which differentiated him from other peoples on the field of battle, or around the permanent fort settlement.

The images of many Hollywood films do not assist, particularly from the days of silvery Baco- foil look of "Ben Hur" style "sword and sandal" classics of the late 1950`s and 60`s.

On equipment the recent "King Arthur" film is of no help. "Gladiator" on the other hand has Legionaries wearing passably suitable equipment but it is in the context of blacked metal, mud, grime, with additional layers of wool and sheep skin to keep warm that the film best captures the essence of the soldiers lot especially in a climate like Scotlands.

The battle of Cremona, 1st C AD

This representation of the Roman civil war battle at Cremona on the continent in 69 AD between the forces of Otho and Vitellius has excellent representations of three Roman soldiers and the story behind the particular image is the well known ironic story of unwitting patricide that is reported to have taken place during the battle.

The soldier to the far left, in this case representing an auxiliary soldier is armed in classic Republican Legionary style, this is much how the soldiers of Caeser appeared. His Montefortino helmet is an old style that will not have soldiered on much beyond this date while his body armour is the chain mail "Lorica Hamata". The older style of this shirt is evident with the shoulder reinforcing of the legionary on the right missing.

His shield is of the flat oval form, usually considered to be an open order auxiliary piece of equipment. His spear is of the common leaf head shape, this particular example being the larger and heavier fighting spear, and several light throwing javelins are held in his shield hand.

In the context of the image, this soldier is made to apear rather archaic, but it is interesting that in this picture that in many respects the basic image of the Roman soldier, especially of the style to be regularly seen in garrison in Scotland is fairly well captured.

Certainly the Montefortino helmet will have been replaced by more current patterns (Link: Infantry Helmets) but the spear, oval shield, short sleeved chain mail shirt and fairly short straight sword remained fundamentally similar through to the 5th C AD.

The greatest changes will have been in the style of clothing, garments changing to suit fashion; from length of sleeves, colours and patterns and in the eventual adoption of trousers and boots.

The soldier in the centre is armed and equipped in the manner that many would consider to be the classic image of the Roman Legionary.

On his head he wears a contemporary Italic helmet with flaring neck guard, large cheek pieces and pleasing copper alloy decoration soldered and rivetted to the bowl of the helmet.    

His armour is the articulated banded plate iron "Lorica Segmentata", now fairly common issue and based on the "Corbridge" pattern recovered in a pre Hadrianic context at Corbridge near the Scottish border. His shield is the semi cylindrical "Scutum" providing good enveloping protection to the wearer in close order combat, with the illustrated short "Pompei" style gladius short sword.

The legionary will most probably have been armed with one, or possibly two of the heavy javelins known as pilums. The long shanks of these weapons were designed to punch through enemy shields and with the momentum provided by the weight of the weapon travel on through to wound or kill the enemy sheltering behind.

Not shown but also available around the latter part of the 1st C AD were similarly banded iron arm guards and possibly also thigh protectors. Greaves appear to have been available for use. The decision on the amount of armour to be worn would probably be based on need depending on the likely enemy weapons to be encountered as well as practical considerations of weight given the prodigous distance Roman soldiers were expected to march.

On their feet the soldiers all wear the traditional heavy sandal, the caligae.

The figure to the right, an older legionary still wears the equipment current when he enlisted as a younger man, and as such is a reminder that seemingly outmoded equipment would be encountered while still serviceable. The equipment shown on this soldier reflects well the common equipment during the initial invasion stages in 43 AD, the equipment comprising a simpler Italic copper alloy helmet, chain mail Lorica Hamata with mail shoulder reinforcements notably held together at the chest, scutum with the older curved edges while his gladius is of the more shaped and heavily pointed "Mainz" pattern.

Soldiers dressed like these examples will have been seen in Scotland during the 1st C AD.

Legionary, Mid 2nd C AD, Campaign Order

This fine image represents the appearance of the Roman legionary for the bulk of the 2nd C AD, especially of the Antonine period.

His helmet, slung for the march around his neck is based on the mid 2nd C AD example found at Theilinghofen. It has the classic "hot cross bun" reinforcements to the skull.

The armour is "Lorica Segmentata", of the simplified and more sturdy "Newstead" type, named after finds made at the fort site in southern Scotland.

Like the figure at Cremona this legionary relies on the heavy piercing pilum javelin and a curved rectangular scutum, here shown with its leather cover to give protection from the rain, a very real practical consideration on campaign in Scotland.

Under his armour he wears a padded undergarment known as Pterurges which projects below his armour to give a level of protection to his thighs. Like his 1st C AD counterpart additional arm and thigh lames are known in the archaeological record, especially from finds at Newstead and Carlisle.

His sword, while still a short gladius style, has the contemporary fashion for an open iron ring pommel, a feature which gives the title of "ring" pommel sword to these weapons.

Campaigning generally took place in late Spring, Summer and early to mid Autumn. Given the nature of the terrain in Scotland, the practical canvas gaiters here assist the soldier, as well as the socks, documented at Vindolanda underneath the boots which are now worn in place of caligae sandals.

Also illustrated are the tent pegs, cooking equipment, pioneers tools and defensive stakes required to erect marching camps, provide shelter and the means to cook his rations. The specially shaped defensive stakes could be tied together to form a continous vertical breast work, or, three could be tied together to form a caltrop like device.When lashed to a simple piece of timber a movable gate obstruction could be placed at marching camp gateways.

Braccae leggings, either of leather or heavy coarse material would also be employed to below the knee. The hairstyle on the image suggests an early Trajanic date for the picture, after the ascension of Hadrian and particularly during the following Antonine Emperors beards and hair in a vaguely "frizzy" cut were the rage following Imperial fashion.

The battle of Lyons , late 2nd C AD

The long awaited show-down between the Emperor Septimus Severus and the British Governor Clodius Albinus finally took place at Lyons in 197 AD, the British troops being narrowly but decisively beaten.

This first class image gives an excellent representation of the soldiers at this time and of a style that in many ways would persist through the 3rd C AD and beyond.

The legionary on the left has a bronze scale cuirass, "Lorica Squamata" and waist and arm Pteruges. The banded Segmentata appears to have been gradually phased out through the 3rd C AD.

The Squamata brass chest fastening pieces and scales themselves are based on finds from the 3rd C AD legionary vexillation fortress at Carpow in Perthshire.

Both banded and scale armours appear to have regularly required repair. While the soldier himself could repair scale quite readily, the banded armour could not and this need for centralised repair may have been the reason why it eventually gave way to more easily maintained means of defence.

On his head he wears a copper alloy Niedermormter helmet, the finest example of both Italic and Gallic classic Roman helmets.

He carries the flat oval shield and thrusting heavy spear formerly considered to be an auxiliary weapon, but indicative of a changed fighting stance and more open order tactic as well as augering the diminishing boundary between the roles and styles of legionaries and auxiliaries.

A longer gladius is hung from a baldric and now sits on his left hip whereas the earlier gladius was worn on the right.

The legionary on the right is armed similarly but has a short sleeved chain mail shirt, a throw back to the earlier style of shirt without the shoulder doublings.

It is unclear whether this legionary has used javelins or has lost his thrusting spear and he advances with his longer sword still held in the clssic fighting pose ready for a sharp thrust against his opponent.

The helmet he wears is of the Hedernheim/Friedberg type, an excellent design which originated in the previous century for cavalry and is thereafter adopted for infantry. In one form or another this style of helmet will equip the Romans for the majority of the 3rd C AD.

The Roman cavalryman lunging at the British legionary is armed with the long two handed "Contus" lance, a weapon originating on the Steppes and in the East. His helmet type is of the close faced variety similar to the infantrymans helmet and would also see out much of the 3rd C AD.

This soldier similarly wears mail, while the changing fashion of longer sleeves is apparent in his tunic. He wears iron encasing greaves on his legs, stirrups are still not yet part of Roman cavalry equipment.

The basic "look" of the equipment on this image would, with variations and minor changes equip the Romans involved afterwards in Scotland. Helmet styles and clothing styles would vary but the essential feel has almost gone back slightly to the first soldier in Image No. 1.

It can be seen therefore, that the classic legionary in banded armour and rectangular scutum and pilum javelin was not quite the archetype ubiquitous Roman soldier as is often claimed.

 

Image Copyright:

The images used in this article, perhaps the best artistic representations to date of Roman legionaries between the 1st and 3rd c AD, are form "Brassey`s History of uniform - Roman Army Wars of Empire", the artist : Graham Turner.

Roman Scotland has made reasonable attempts to contact both publisher and artist for permission to use this material.

Copyright remains with the artist and publisher.

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©2008 Roman Scotland. All Rights Reserved
First Published February 2008